STAGING SITE
Psalm 95 Poetry
About the Poetics Layer
Exploring the Psalms as poetry is crucial for understanding and experiencing the psalms and thus for faithfully translating them into another language. This layer is comprised of two main parts: Poetic Structure and Poetic Features.
Poetic Structure
In poetic structure, we analyse the structure of the psalm beginning at the most basic level of the structure: the line (also known as the “colon” or “hemistich”). Then, based on the perception of patterned similarities (and on the assumption that the whole psalm is structured hierarchically), we argue for the grouping of lines into verses, verses into sub-sections, sub-sections into larger sections, etc. Because patterned similarities might be of various kinds (syntactic, semantic, pragmatic, sonic) the analysis of poetic structure draws on all of the previous layers (especially the Discourse layer).
Poetic Macro-structure
If an emendation or revocalization is preferred, that emendation or revocalization will be marked in the Hebrew text of all the visuals.
| Emendations/Revocalizations legend | |
|---|---|
| *Emended text* | Emended text, text in which the consonants differ from the consonants of the Masoretic text, is indicated by blue asterisks on either side of the emendation. |
| *Revocalized text* | Revocalized text, text in which only the vowels differ from the vowels of the Masoretic text, is indicated by purple asterisks on either side of the revocalization. |
Notes
- Not only does the root בוא provide an inclusio for the second half of the psalm and provide motivation for the alternation to בֹּ֭אוּ (v. 6) from לְ֭כוּ (v. 1), but the latter may also finds its correspondence in the implied *לֹא הָלְכוּ בִדְרָכַי "they did not walk in my ways" in עַ֤ם תֹּעֵ֣י לֵבָ֣ב הֵ֑ם וְ֝הֵ֗ם לֹא־יָדְע֥וּ דְרָכָֽי׃ (v. 10b-c),[1] such that the initial imperatives of the psalm's two halves are brought to a close at the end of the psalm (1a - 10bc // 6 - 11b). Savran also notes that "the close relationship between the היום of v. 7c and the כיום of the trial in the desert (v. 8) is central to the rhetorical strategy of the psalm,"[2] and, similarly, "the meaning of the psalm emerges precisely from this break [v. 7c] in the text."[3] Further yet, the section of v. 7c-11b is bound by הַ֝יּ֗וֹם "the day" and מְנוּחָתִֽי "my rest" (cf. Gen 2:2).
- While some scholarship consider the psalm's two major sections to be determined by the "prophetic" turn in v. 7c,[4] van der Lugt's approach reflects our observations here and understands the two imperatives in vv. 1 and 6 to represent the beginning of the psalm's two sections.[5] See the discussion in van der Lugt,[6] which he prefaces as follows: "Mesmerized by the special character of vv. 8–11, exegetes generally take v. 7d as an independent colon introducing the divine speech ... I will argue that the main caesura in Psalm 95 is not to be found after v. 7c, but after v. 5. At the same time, there are no compelling reasons to separate v. 7d from the preceding strophe."[7] Further, we are in full agreement with his conclusion: "The bipartite structure of Psalm 95 is not based on the difference between a ‘hymn’ and an ‘oracle’, but between God as the Lord above the gods (vv. 1–5) and God as the Shepherd of the people of Israel (vv. 6–11), between ‘heaven’ and ‘earth’."[8]
Line Divisions
Line division divides the poem into lines and line groupings. We determine line divisions based on a combination of external evidence (Masoretic accents, pausal forms, manuscripts) and internal evidence (syntax, prosodic word counting and patterned relation to other lines). Moreover, we indicate line-groupings by using additional spacing.
When line divisions are uncertain, we consult some of the many psalms manuscripts which lay out the text in lines. Then, if a division attested in one of these manuscripts/versions influences our decision to divide the text at a certain point, we place a green symbol (G, DSS, or MT) to the left of the line in question.
| Poetic line division legend | |
|---|---|
| Pausal form | Pausal forms are highlighted in yellow. |
| Accent which typically corresponds to line division | Accents which typically correspond to line divisions are indicated by red text. |
| | | Clause boundaries are indicated by a light gray vertical line in between clauses. |
| G | Line divisions that follow Greek manuscripts are indicated by a bold green G. |
| DSS | Line divisions that follow the Dead Sea Scrolls are indicated by a bold green DSS. |
| M | Line divisions that follow Masoretic manuscripts are indicated by a bold green M. |
| Number of prosodic words | The number of prosodic words are indicated in blue text. |
| Prosodic words greater than 5 | The number of prosodic words if greater than 5 is indicated by bold blue text. |
If an emendation or revocalization is preferred, that emendation or revocalization will be marked in the Hebrew text of all the visuals.
| Emendations/Revocalizations legend | |
|---|---|
| *Emended text* | Emended text, text in which the consonants differ from the consonants of the Masoretic text, is indicated by blue asterisks on either side of the emendation. |
| *Revocalized text* | Revocalized text, text in which only the vowels differ from the vowels of the Masoretic text, is indicated by purple asterisks on either side of the revocalization. |
Notes
- v. 7 – Both Howard and van der Lugt suggest analyzing וְצֹ֣אן יָד֑וֹ as its own line, as reflected also in Alexandrinus and Vaticanus,[9] but not Sinaiticus. Van der Lugt is explicit in his reasoning: "as a break-up of a stereotyped phrase (cf. Pss. 79,13a and 100,3c...)."[10] Nevertheless, the internal evidence (line balance and syntax) evidence seems to support our preferred three-line grouping, found also in the Codex Sinaiticus. Also dispreferred is reading כִּ֘י ה֤וּא אֱלֹהֵ֗ינוּ וַאֲנַ֤חְנוּ עַ֣ם מַ֭רְעִיתוֹ וְצֹ֣אן יָד֑וֹ as one long line, which the Masoretic accents would seem to indicate and which is also read in the Babylonian manuscripts.
Poetic Features
In poetic features, we identify and describe the “Top 3 Poetic Features” for each Psalm. Poetic features might include intricate patterns (e.g., chiasms), long range correspondences across the psalm, evocative uses of imagery, sound-plays, allusions to other parts of the Bible, and various other features or combinations of features. For each poetic feature, we describe both the formal aspects of the feature and the poetic effect of the feature. We assume that there is no one-to-one correspondence between a feature’s formal aspects and its effect, and that similar forms might have very different effects depending on their contexts. The effect of a poetic feature is best determined (subjectively) by a thoughtful examination of the feature against the background of the psalm’s overall message and purpose.
The Rock of Refreshment
If an emendation or revocalization is preferred, that emendation or revocalization will be marked in the Hebrew text of all the visuals.
| Emendations/Revocalizations legend | |
|---|---|
| *Emended text* | Emended text, text in which the consonants differ from the consonants of the Masoretic text, is indicated by blue asterisks on either side of the emendation. |
| *Revocalized text* | Revocalized text, text in which only the vowels differ from the vowels of the Masoretic text, is indicated by purple asterisks on either side of the revocalization. |
Feature
In Ps 95:1, YHWH is introduced as "the rock of our salvation."
The final section of the psalm (vv. 7c-11) warns the people of irreverent worship today based on the ancestors' failures in putting YHWH to the test in the past, at the waters of Meribah/Massah (see v. 8). There, immediately following the Exodus, the people grumbled against Moses in the wilderness as they asked for water, and "tested the Lord saying, 'Is the Lord among us or not?'" (Exod 17:7, NIV). That entire episode was characterized by the rock: "I will stand there before you by the rock (הַצּוּר֮) at Horeb. Strike the rock (בַצּ֗וּר), and water will come out of it for the people to drink" (Exod 17:6, NIV).
Effect
Although "rock" (צוּר) is a common title for YHWH throughout the Bible, including the Psalms, it takes on a special significance and irony in Ps 95—a psalm rhetorically dominated by the event of Meribah/Massah, where Moses struck the rock (צוּר).
The opening reference to YHWH as "the rock of our salvation" (v. 1) anticipates the reference to the ancestors' failure to trust God in Meribah/Massah, a crucial part of the reverent decree of warning which dominates the second half of the psalm. Referring to YHWH "the rock of our salvation," however, highlights the irony in that, though their ancestors questioned "Is the Lord among us or not?" (Exod 17:7), the Lord does not reject their descendants, but invites them to trust him and enter the rest of his presence (v. 11b). While the ancestors tested YHWH (v. 9; cf. Exod 17:7), YHWH now tests the present generation. Will they respond to the psalm's message by longing for the rest provided by their Rock (see poetic feature #3), or continue to pursue a false rock in the idolatrous pursuit of comfort (1 Cor 10:5-7)?
Breaking with the Past
If an emendation or revocalization is preferred, that emendation or revocalization will be marked in the Hebrew text of all the visuals.
| Emendations/Revocalizations legend | |
|---|---|
| *Emended text* | Emended text, text in which the consonants differ from the consonants of the Masoretic text, is indicated by blue asterisks on either side of the emendation. |
| *Revocalized text* | Revocalized text, text in which only the vowels differ from the vowels of the Masoretic text, is indicated by purple asterisks on either side of the revocalization. |
Feature
There are only two temporal adverbials ("today" in v. 7c and "for forty years" in v. 10a) in Psalm 95. They appear in syntactically ambiguous positions, being plausibly interpreted with the preceding or following clause.
Ps 95:7c, "today":
# Modifying what's before:
- "For He is our God, and we are the people of his pasture and the sheep of his hand today, if you will obey his voice and not harden their hearts."[11]
# Modifying what's after:
- Today, if you want to obey his voice...
- "Do not harden your hearts as..."
As noted by one scholar, "this section of the verse joins the two parts of the Psalm and ... it should be seen as simultaneously concluding v. 7 and introducing v. 8."[12] Our preferred reading of the syntax is option 2, which you can read about in detail here: The Syntax of Psalm95:7-8.
Ps 95:10, "for forty years":
# Modifying what's before:
- "They had even seen my work for forty years! I was disgusted..."
- This interpretation is shared by Hebrews 3:9-10 (see the grammar notes) and is reflected in the Peshitta's verse division (ܚܙܘ ܥܒ̈ܕܝ ܐܪ̈ܒܥܝܢ ܫܢܝ̈ܢ "they saw my works forty years")—cf. de-Rossi, Variae Lectiones, vol. 4, 64—and the punctuation provided by the editors of the Leiden critical edition of the Peshitta.[13]
# Modifying what's after:
- "They had even seen my work! For forty years I was disgusted..."
Of course, it is true that the people both saw YHWH's works for forty years (Acts 7:36), and YHWH was disgusted with them for this length of time. Nevertheless, the second interpretation of the syntax is strongly preferable in view of the MT and other ancient versions.
Effect
This "Janus" position of the temporal adverbials iconically sets out the choice to “align with what went before” or to “align with what comes after,” as in following the ways of the ancestors or choosing a different path for the future. Nevertheless, in both cases the syntax is preferably read as continuing into the following clause, breaking with the past and projecting a new, better future of covenantal faithfulness to YHWH.
YHWH's Presence is Rest
If an emendation or revocalization is preferred, that emendation or revocalization will be marked in the Hebrew text of all the visuals.
| Emendations/Revocalizations legend | |
|---|---|
| *Emended text* | Emended text, text in which the consonants differ from the consonants of the Masoretic text, is indicated by blue asterisks on either side of the emendation. |
| *Revocalized text* | Revocalized text, text in which only the vowels differ from the vowels of the Masoretic text, is indicated by purple asterisks on either side of the revocalization. |
Feature
Ps 95 begins both halves of the psalm with a plural imperative as an invitation to worship and exhortation to submission, respectively.
The second half of the psalm contains an inclusio with the verb בוא. The place entered in v. 6 is the temple, as the psalm's audience is exhorted to enter, and the promised land in v. 11b, where the ancestors failed to enter.
Effect
The poetic structure formed around the invitation to "come" (לְ֭כוּ and בֹּ֭אוּ, both boxed in blue)—and especially the verbal root בוא—contrasts the rest promised to those reverently worshiping in YHWH's presence with praise (v. 2a, 6b; cf. Ps 100:4) and the resting place promised to, but not attained by, the ancestors (v. 11b).
The poetic implication is that the "place" of worship, YHWH's "rest," has now become YHWH's presence. The ancestors did not enter into the place of YHWH's rest ... will the present generation?
Repeated Roots
The repeated roots table is intended to identify the roots which are repeated in the psalm.
| Repeated Roots legend | |
|---|---|
| Divine name | The divine name is indicated by bold purple text. |
| Roots bounding a section | Roots bounding a section, appearing in the first and last verse of a section, are indicated by bold red text. |
 |
Roots occurring primarily in the first section are indicated in a yellow box. |
 |
Roots occurring primarily in the third section are indicated in a blue box. |
 |
Roots connected across sections are indicated by a vertical gray line connecting the roots. |
 |
Section boundaries are indicated by a horizontal black line across the chart. |
Notes
- The name יהוה is limited almost to the first half of the psalm, appearing for the third and final time in the first verse of the second half.
- The root פנה (circled in black) also appears towards the beginning of both halves of the psalm.
- There is an almost symmetrical cluster of אֱלֹהִים, יָד and עשׂה (circled in purple) in the center of the psalm (vv. 3-7), which reflects the involvement of his "hands" in creation and also as a shepherd, such that the psalmist can refer to him as אֱלֹהֵנוּ "our God."
- Finally, the the root בוא (circled in pink) forms an inclusio around vv.6–11. Other repetitions in this section include עַם ,יוֹם ,לֵבָב (circled in green) and נסה. These are repeated in a near-symmetric pattern.
Bibliography
- Atkinson, Ian. 2025. "Parentheticals in Biblical Hebrew Prophetic and Poetic Literature," in Vetus Testamentum. Published online 19th August 2025. doi:10.1163/15685330-bja10226.
- Atkinson, Ian. 2026a. "Aposiopesis, Anacoluthon & Compound Subordinate Clauses," in The Cambridge Grammar of Biblical Hebrew. Edited by Geoffrey Khan. Cambridge: Open Book Publishers and University of Cambridge.
- Atkinson, Ian. 2026b. Word Order in Biblical Hebrew: The Economy and Iconicity of Fronted Constructions. University Park, PA: Eisenbrauns.
- Barthélemy, Dominique, et al. 2005. Critique textuelle de l’Ancien Testament: Tome 4. Psaumes. Fribourg / Göttingen: Vandenhoeck Ruprecht.
- Blau, Joshua. 1982. "An Adverbial Construction in Hebrew and Arabic: Sentence Adverbials in Fronted Position separated from the Rest of the Sentence," in Proceedings of the Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities 6, vol. 1: 1-103.
- Braulik, Georg. 1986. "Gottes Ruhe—Das Land oder der Tempel? Zu Psalm 95,11." Pages 33-44 in E. Haag and F.L. Hossfeld (eds.) Freude an der Weisung des Herrn: Beiträge zur Theologie der Psalmen, SBB 13. Stuttgart: Katholisches Bibelwerk.
- Conklin, Blane. 2011. Oath Formulas in Biblical Hebrew. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns.
- Delitzsch, Franz. 1877. Biblical Commentary on the Psalms: Vol. 3. Edinburgh: T&T Clark.
- Fassberg, Steven E. 2019. An Introduction to the Syntax of Biblical Hebrew (Hebrew: מבוא לתחביר לשון המקרא). Jerusalem: The Bialik Institute.
- Fokkelman, Jan P. 2003. Major Poems of the Hebrew Bible: at the Interface of Prosody and Structural Analysis. Assen: Royal van Gorcum.
- GKC = Gesenius, Wilhelm & Kautsch, Emil. 1909. A. E. Cowley (trans.) Gesenius' Hebrew Grammar. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
- Goldingay, J. 2006. Baker Commentary on the Old Testament: Psalms 90–150. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic.
- Ḥakham, Amos. 1979. ספר תהלים: ספרים ג–ה (in Hebrew; The Book of Psalms: Books 3-5). Jerusalem: Mossad Harav Kook.
- Holmstedt, Robert D. 2016. The Relative Clause in Biblical Hebrew. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns.
- Hossfeld, F. 2005. "Psalm 93." Pages 446-450 in K. Baltzer (ed.) A Commentary on Psalms 51-100. Minneapolis, MN: Augsburg Fortress Press.
- Howard, D. M. 1997. The Structure of Psalms 93-100. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns.
- Jerome, Saint and Marie Liguori Ewald. 1996. The Homilies of Saint Jerome, Volume 2. Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America Press.
- JM = Joüon, Paul & Muraoka, Takamitsu. 2006. A Grammar of Biblical Hebrew. Rome: Pontificio Istituto Biblico.
- Khan, Geoffrey. 2026. "Yiqṭol," in The Cambridge Grammar of Biblical Hebrew. Edited by Geoffrey Khan. Cambridge: Open Book Publishers and University of Cambridge.
- Lambert, Mayer. 1898. "L'article dans la poésie hébraïque," in Revue des études juives, vol. 37, n. 74:203-209.
- Lu, Rosanna A. 2025. The Transformation of Tĕhôm: From Deified Power to Demonized Abyss. Leiden: Brill.
- Matthews, P. H. 2014. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Linguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Meier, Samuel, A. 1992. Speaking of Speaking: Marking Direct Discourse in the Hebrew Bible. Leiden: Brill.
- Mena, Andrea K. 2012. The Semantic Potential of עַל in Genesis, Psalms, and Chronicles. MA thesis: University of Stellenbosch.
- Prinsloo, W. S. 1995. "Psalm 95: If only you will listen to his voice!" Pages 393-410 in M. Daniel Carroll R; David J. A Clines; Philip R Davies & J. W Rogerson (eds.) The Bible in Human Society: Essays in Honour of John Rogerson. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press.
- Rashi. Rashi on Psalms.
- Saadia = Qafaḥ, Y. 1965. The Psalms with Translation and Commentary of Saadia Gaon (in Hebrew: תהלים עם תרגום פוירוש הגאון). Jerusalem: The American Academy for Jewish Research (האקדימיה האמריקאנית למדעי היהדות).
- Sasse, Hans J. 2006. “Theticity.” Pages 255-308 in Pragmatic Organization of Discourse in the Languages of Europe. Edited by Giuliano Bernini and Marcia L. Schwarz. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
- Savran, George W. 2003. "The Contrasting Voices of Psalm 95." Revue Biblique 110, no. 1: 17-32.
- Schniedewind, W. M. 1995. "'Are we his people or not?' Biblical Interpretation during Crisis." Biblica 76, no. 4: 540-550.
- Simon, Uriel. 1991. Four Approaches to the Book of Psalms: From Saadiah Gaon to Abraham ibn Ezra. New York, NY: State University of New York Press.
- Tsumura, David T. 2023. Vertical Grammar of Parallelism in Biblical Hebrew. Atlanta, GA: SBL Press.
- Van der Lugt, Pieter. 2014. Cantos and Strophes in Biblical Hebrew Poetry III: Psalms 90-150 and Psalm 1. Leiden: Brill.
- Van der Merwe, C. H. J. 2025. "Fronting in the Protasis of אִם Conditionals." Pages 69-97 in A. Hornkohl et al. (eds.) Interconnected Traditions: Semitic Languages, Literatures and Cultures: A Festschrift for Geoffrey Khan. Volume 1: Hebrew and the Wider Semitic World. Cambridge: Open Book Publishers & University of Cambridge.
- Van Petegem, Pieter Bob. 2008. "Sur le Psaume 95." Scandinavian Journal of the Old Testament 22, vol. 2: 237-251.
- Walter et al. The Old Testament in Syriac according to the Peshitta version. Part 2, fasc. 3, Liber psalmorum : The Book of Psalms. Edited on behalf of the International Organization for the Study of the Old Testament by the Peshitta Institute Leiden. Leiden: Brill.
- Watson, Wilfred. G. E. 1986. Classical Hebrew Poetry: A Guide to its Techniques. Sheffield: JSOT Press.
Footnotes
- ↑ See Savran 2003, 29.
- ↑ Savran 2003, 32.
- ↑ Le sens du psaume se dégage justement de cette rupture [v. 7c] dans le texte; Van Petegem 2008, 237.
- ↑ See, e.g., Howard 1997, 53-54; Fokkelman 2003, 184.
- ↑ van der Lugt 2014, 62.
- ↑ van der Lugt 2014, 66-69.
- ↑ van der Lugt 2014, 6.
- ↑ van der Lugt 2014, 68.
- ↑ So Rahlfs 1931; see Howard 1997, 54 and van der Lugt 2014, 62.
- ↑ van der Lugt 2014, 62.
- ↑ Adapted from Schniedewind 1995, 546-547.
- ↑ Prinsloo 1995, 403.
- ↑ Walter et al. 1980, 112.